The Health Problem as a Moderator
of Stress that Lead to Job Performance among Teachers in Sekolah Menengah
Kebangsaan Pasir Gudang 2 Johor Bahru.
CHAPTER 2
Literature Review
INTRODUCTION
This chapter reviews and discusses about the
previous literatures related to the variables that associated with the stress
among teachers that affected the job performance and it was linked with the
health problem that being faced by teachers nowadays to achieved an excellent
school performance parallel with objectives of Ministry of Education in
enlarging the Malaysia’s education in development the country to be develop
country in the future. Therefore, education was one of the items that need to
be concerned because education brings the future generation to be more creative
in generating the idea and would be more innovation in creating the solution of
the problems.
MALAYSIA EDUCATION
Malaysia’s
Education Philosophies is an ongoing
effort towards further developing the potential of individuals in a holistic
and integrated to create a balanced and harmonious intellectually, spiritually,
emotionally, and physically based on a firm belief in God. This effort is to
produce Malaysian citizens who are knowledgeable and competent, virtuous,
responsible and capable of achieving well-being, and contribute to the
betterment of families, communities and countries (moe.com.my, 2015). Parallel
in with Malaysia Education Vision indicates that Malaysia’s producing quality
education, human well-education in order to increase the prosperous country,
yet with the Education Mission in Malaysia whereby the education was preserving
the quality of the education system to develop individual potential to meet the
aspiration of the country.
Fazli et al (2005) reported that
education was change during current modernization and globalization in
education need to enhance and fortified with the multi taking in all field.
Malaysia Education Blueprint (2015-2025) initiated the ten (10) shifts as a key
performance issues in system to enhancing the quality performance and
efficiency in global trends that disorderly in the higher education. The shifts
contained holistic entrepreneurial and balanced graduates, talent excellence,
nation of lifelong learners, quality technical and vocational education and
training (TVET) graduates, financial sustainability, empowered governance,
innovation ecosystem, global prominence, globalized online learning and
transformed higher education learning. All the shifts were planted from
preschool to post secondary education system outlined in the Malaysia Education
Blueprint (MEB) (2015-2025).
Slightly about Technical and
Vocational Education Training (TVET) for Higher Education was about the
government concerned towards the acquisition of knowledge and skills for the
world of works (UNESCO, 1995-2014). However, TVET was more concerned to the
students in post-secondary and adults whereby the students being persuaded to
further their studies in tertiary education and to upgrade their skill deeply
to perform as an excellent outcome. Nevertheless, the students may gained the
life-long learning to correcting their skills and be more sharp in handling
their performance in order to gathered the best results. Eventually TVET also
may help the country and the society to increase the profit of Malaysia
education quality in which Malaysia was producing an individual who have lots
of skill and life-long learners to survive in the future, plus, to help the
country to become a develop country for future (MEB, 2015-2025).
“Strike the iron while its hot”
was English proverb by (PRPM, 2009) means that educating the children should
start from their early childhood was parallel in objectify the Malaysian
Education which was in line with the MEB whereby the education transformation
in Malaysia should be start with the preschool children until the
post-secondary student to grabbed the opportunity in become develop country.
Therefore, the students was not only as a life-long leaner but, they were also
as a leader and decisions makers whereby they can have their own benefits,
rights, and corresponding responsibilities
with each other (MEB 2015-2025).
Thus, in order for the
educational transformation was running changes, the person who was in-charge were
obviously the teachers in school from childhood kindergarten until the teachers
in secondary school (MOE, 2000-2015). According to past studied, in order to
perform in the Malaysia 2020 Vision, teachers who was enterprising, highly
competent, intelligent and high productivity was the criteria that were required
by Malaysia to enhancing the productivity and qualification education of the
student (Sapora, n.d). In additions, education’s field, Malaysia’s had to face
the changes and transformation in education in line with the changes of
economic, social and technology to run with the global wide range in education
world. Therefore, the same guru’s mentioned that the teachers nowadays have to
be more knowledgeable in any fields and to have enough skills in link with the
rapid development of field in education.
“Those who seek the world,
they be knowledge, those who seek Hereafter, he is knowledgeable, those who
seek both at the same time it must also be educated” –Prophet Muhammad SAW-
STRESS
These days, besides Malaysia 2020
Vision, the transformation in Malaysia Education Blueprint (MEB) addressing the
new changes in educations world, the teachers was being pushed to follow the
criteria that need to be resolve in student to advocate the ten (10) shifts of
key performance students. Meanwhile, the teachers also been stress out about
their teaching and work management which was the report about their students
and answering the questions about why the students was increasing/decreasing in
their performance (Azfa, 2014). In dressing the transformation, it was involved
the new criteria of school which was trustee school. Azfa (2014) pursued that
trustee school was the low –performing school in which they being monitored by
Ministry of Education (MOE) to produce more intelligent student that will be
line with others school such as Premier School, Smart School, Boarding School
and Mara Junior Science College. The reason was to stress out for no students
was left behind in educations field and equal to those which were intelligent
and brilliant in studies. Therefore, no reason for uneducated people was born
in Malaysia.
Based on the education
transformation, the stress among teachers might be the one issue to objectify
the productivity and performance in teachers because stress may trouble teacher
quality teaching and affected physical and psychological of the teachers (Payne
and Firth, 1987). As consequent, from past studies by Sapora also mentioned
that stress occur when the teachers having unhandled tasks been given and lead
to the absenteeism, low morale in employees, high accident and the most top in
the rank was lower in producing the performance in schools. It was supported by
Barling (1990) repotted that stress was the main factor that welcomed the
decreased of work quality and had attend to left the teaching professions.
According to Lee (1999) reported that, there was many teachers responsibility
besides teaching, for instance, in line with the transformation in education in
the a country, the teachers was required to have an high intellectual skills in
order to multitask their works being given and Koch et al (1982) supported that
the teachers was essentially help their students to scorer in academic and
implementing the moral values and elements in their students life in the
future.
Parallel with modern ways, the
teachers was initiated and being force to work harder and extend their time
after work to run in line with the high education demanded. The demand was the
changes in education world according to times to build up and increasing
multi-field in education. Thus, the stress among teachers being sees when the
all the educators was forced to run in the process of education to achieved the
increases an excellent numbers of colourful results in students. Another
results was, the stressful teachers will lead the unsuccessful transformation
education in Malaysia whereby the teachers cannot cope with the teaching and
students cause by there were too much tasks was been given to them and the
social disciplines by the students (Fazli, Ching, Syeriza, Nazrah , 2005).
From former scholar’s reported
that not only the teachers feeling so stress to cope with the transformation,
but the student-teacher who had their practicum also taste the stress in school
whereby, the student-teacher and also the teacher was demanded by Ministry to
associates and savvy with the current technology and per suave the curriculum
to be perfect role model in the students eyes (Sally, 2010).the student-teacher
also undergo the stress factors that were involved financial concerns, worrying
the future, workload, gender and depression (Dahlin, Johnburg &Runeson,
2005). Early guru’s said that student-teacher nowadays was facing the highest
stress level in school. The prior finding was reported 37% of the teachers was
stress in 2001 and generally the teachers distressed was mainly the greeter
rather than others professions work (Kyriacou, 2001) and (Tuettemen &
Punch, 1992).
Former studied slightly told that
the Australian’s teachers was revealed that 45% of secondary schools in
Australia was psychologically distressed and the portion of the results was “twice
that for the general population, and perhaps four times as high as that for the
professional populations” (Tuettemen & Punch, 1992). Scholar’s
Herchfeld (2001) described that the teacher-student was not really recognize
that they were psychologically distress because they don’t aware the symptoms
well and they just feeling the anxiety and might be untreated. However, the
same empirical studied revealed that teacher and student-teacher was highly
significant in coped with the impact of depression and anxiety and permitted
themselves for not to stick with the same professions after graduating.
Early scholars Robbins (2005)
stated that job performance was an engagement of effort of the individual
coping with their job (Shanti, 2012). Previous guru’s Griva & Joekas
(2003), Pillay et al (2005), Tuetteman & Punch (1992) cited as Sallie
(2010) described stress was had related with job demands and this was advocated
by Fadzlie et al (2005 indicated that the teachers was stress following with
the highest demand by the education burden carrier by not purposely resulting
the teacher stress that interrupting the education operation. Therefore, the
impact in stressful teacher were invited the negative outcomes in the teachers
decreasing performance and it may welcomed the consequences in school whereby
the quality teaching and the quantity of successful student may declined
(Shanti, 2012). Another empirical studied found that “the demands of the
job, the goals, the missions of the organization, and belief’s in the
organization and beliefs in the organization about which behaviors were most
valued” (Beffort & Hattrup, 2003).
The stress among teacher was the
one which was in the high level that were allied with cause factors, the fundamental
in teaching, the technology influences were formed the collision teacher
retention and remaining. Otherwise, teacher stress also in linked with the
individual itself and the surrounding (environment) of teachers workplace
(Manjula, 2007). Additionally, from the view of past researcher Matt Jarvis in
Manjula (2007) believes that classroom discipline and classroom management
(Travers and Cooper, 1997) had a significant source of stress in teachers and
better working conditions enhanced the teacher stress became diminished.
Likewise the same studied mention about the female gender (government services)
that was more getting stress compared to male gender because the female gender
was unsatisfied with physical conditions in work and also working at home,
(Khwaja and Shauta Kohli Chandrs, Vol 46. No. 2 May 1999 Social Welfare
Journal).
STRESS VERSUS JOB PERFORMANCE
Obviously, the past scholar’s
generated that stress were conducting the teachers to had a lower performance,
falling in motivation and diminishing the their behavior in both side school
and teachers in order to complete and achieving their work (Shanti, 2012). Many
Scholars Flynn (2000), Hickie, (2004), Kumar et al (2000), Newbury-Birch et al
(2002), Pickard et al (2000) &Prince (2007) initiated that teachers that
were stress burst out the risk of absenteeism and faced the long-term illness
(Sallie,2010). As the 21st century being develop, many technology
changes overtime (Lisa ea al, 2013) that were lead the teacher to have a
technology skills and performance nowadays being evaluated by computer,
therefore, the teachers who were not coping with technologies were more stress
compared with others (Lisa et al, 2013) and (Fazlie et al, 2005). According to
Anwar, Ishak, Sadaf, Shafiq (2012) addressed that teachers always faced an
unwanted situation in terms of environmental factors that was exists in
educational institution (internal factors) or exists outside the educational
institution (external factors) that lead the disturbances of teachers
lifestyles that will enhancing the negatively wave in teachers performance and
also, seldom the prior researchers heard that teachers in school had a great
lifestyles when they back home or in school.
According to Manjula (2007)
initiated that the occupational stress of teachers by John Mc Cormick in the
Journal of Educational Administration, Mar 1997 Vol. 35 Issues, Page 18-38
stated that the poor job description and specifications for stress. Manjula
(2007) mentioned that differentiating the executive of each teacher were
important to classified teachers classroom, primary teachers and infant
teachers. On the other hand, the methodological analysis among teachers was
shown the teachers burnout. On the same studied, the previous studied from
Sargio Guglienam and Kristin Tatron;s (1995) indicated in occupational stress
and health in teachers that the stress among teachers was essentially cause by
not properly rewarded, uncomfortable workplace, keened job pressure and reduced
the professional satisfaction in as a teacher. Furthermore, these empirical
studied proposed that stress may lead to the threats in the teacher’s health
that will agitated the teaching and learning process between teacher itself and
also the students.
As described by Park (2007),
stress workers related through the unhealthy lifestyles, poorly motivated, less
productivity and less safety at the workplace. The same researcher also
mentioned that the stress employee were unable to ensure the organization or
company to in line with others competitive market. According to former
researcher cited in Park (2007) stated that stress employee also involved the
sick paid, lost productivity, employee health care and lawsuit costs (Palmer et
al, 2004). Otherwise, the most important source in work stress was job strain
(Park, 2007) that was associated with Karasek Model that proposed that the job
strain was interrelated with psychological demands and decisions scope
(Karasek, 1979). As for information, from the Karasek Model’s dimensions, first
column was the psychological demand more on workers that were correlated to
rapidity, skills essential, and cooperation with colleagues. Next, the second
dimension described that the creativity versus repetition. According to Lindstrom,
2005 cited in Park (2007) described that it was actually meaning that the
freedom and responsibility to did the works or tasks on how and when to finish
the work. In the Karasek Model in Park (2007) there were low- and high- strain
jobs that were important to distinguished the retained of job control and
psychological demands. In fact, the low demand and low control were piloting
the unmotivated job setting whereby it can results the plodding loss of prior
acquired skills (Karasek, 1998).
Karasek Model in Stress was as
shown as below adapted from Jungwee Park (2007):
Graigh Geis, (2007) disputed the
understanding the relationship between stress and job performance defined the
stress was the mental-emotional strain that across the individual’s mind either
it was physiological or an environment stress. Therefore, this former
researcher issued the five (5) stages of stress cycle that were affecting the
job performance at the workplace specifically.
The five stages of stress
mentioned as below:
a)
Stages 1 (Stimulus Detection): The fear and stress
was involved when the individual feels the threatening in the particular
situation whereby the process of Amygda was taking actions in managing the
response. The Amygda can be defined as “the process incoming stimulus in the
brain is processed in the brain by a structure in the limbic system”. In
these Amygda process, the contract from memory storage towards the emotional
impact was ensue, therefore, stress was one of the emotional impact that
stimulated when the emotion of the negatives wave was burst.
b)
Stages 2 (Fight or Flight): In this stages, the
associated with releasing the stress hormone. At this process, it was involved
the hypothalamus, pituitary and adrenal glands when the person or the
individual was stress. These processes were occurred when the hormones that
were released wad depends on the perceiveness level of stress in the individual
meanwhile, these past researcher stated that, it was not about the threat or
the stressor but it was depends on the perception of that matters from the
individual. Furthermore. The hormone was actually can cause an immediate
increasing of the heart rate. When mentioned about heart rate, it was actually
reflected the performance of the individual in their work no matters it was
received in positive and negative ways. Unfortunately, the increasing of heart
rate can easily change the job performance of the individual due to the stress
and not from the exercise (physical exertion). “It’s not the heart rate
that matters but what drives the heart rate that is important”.
c)
Stages 3 (Arousal): This stage describes about the
impact of the stress due to the transmission of the hormones and
neurotransmitters that were accessed the nervous system activated. In addition,
the arousal can be referring as the eagerness to work when the perceiveness of
brain cooperated with the work in any time. The arousal was initiated by
elements likes’ mental activity, heart rate, blood pressure and respiratory
rate. “The greater the perceived threat, the higher the arousal level will
be”.
d)
Stages 4 (Attention): The attention stage was
referred more too cognitive process whereby the individual was seeking “the
allocation of process resources”. Moreover, attention was involved the mental
process focusing from mental resources that were capable to grab the task. “The
more attention one task requires, the less attention is available for
performing other tasks”. There were basic principle of attention in order
to reduce the stress among employee that need to be alarming by the employers
was
i.
Inattention: No perceived the business and not much paid an
attention
ii.
Global attention: Maximize the amount of information
iii.
Selective attention: Mismatched the external and
internal capabilities
iv.
Hyper –vigilance: Borderline of panic
e)
Stages 5 (Performance Enhanced or Degraded): from
the past Yerkes-Dodson Law of psychologists Robert M. Yerkers and John
Dilingham (1908) cited in the Geis (2007), there is the relationship between
arousal and performance. The high the level of arousal, the lower the
performance indeed.
STRESS VERSUS HEALTH PROBLEM
According to empirical studied stress
involving the health problem among teachers yet, it hailed the physical symptoms
as such as anxiety, impaired functioning, diminished performance and lowered
productivity (Donaghy, 2004, Chandavakar et al 2007, Wong et al, 2006). From
preceding researchers also shocked that teacher had an idea in suicide and
increased the mortality and depression (Ciujpers et al, 2007) and (Garlow et
al, 2008). As mentioned by Scholar cited in Sallie (2010), the long-term
illness occur in many ways that were affected by stress especially involving
the Cardiovascular Diseases in angina pectoris due to the lacking of the oxygen
for the heart muscle and myocardial infarction causes by lacking the oxygen for
a long period until the part of muscle was injures due to the shortage of
oxygen (Stress and Cardiovascular Disease, 2006). As reported from the chapter
one in these research, the psychological that faced by a stressful individual
were mostly related to the cardiovascular disease in which it was involving the
raised blood pressure, chest pains, palpitations and hyperventilation,
meanwhile, stress were also affected the other parts of body in which
headaches, Gastro-intestinal disorders, sleep disorders and fatigue.
Another previous researches
accounted that the stress also embraced the heartburn, chest pain, rashes and
also cardiovascular diseases (Norton et al, 1999).in fact, a stress teachers
tempt to had depression where it divided by two (2) which is mild-depression
effects the well-being and major depression was the serious one (Cujipers,
2007) that associated the anxiety and immune system (Prince et al, 2007). Besides
that, a part of these diseases that faced by teachers, the depressed teachers
feeling also been disrupted causes by feeling worry all the time, unenjoyable
in their lifestyle, poorly in sleeping or waking up too early to finish their
works and feeling slowed down (Christensen, Jorm, Mackinnon, Korten, Jacomb,
Handerson & Rodgers, 1999). By fact, others empirical studied also
advocated that the techers who were always worried about their works and
feeling hopelessness effecting their quality of life (Warmerdam et al, 2007).
As discussed in Stress and
Cardiovascular Diseases (2006), it accounted that stress piloted the
physiological changes and behavioral changes in and individual itself. The
stress report described that physiological changes was encountered the highest
blood pressure, higher level of lipids (LDL cholesterol), higher fibrinogen in
blood , higher pulse, arrhythmia, coagulation time, higher level obesity, increase
stress hormones (cortisol and adrenalin) and vascular inflammation. However,
behavioral changes engaged with increased tobacco smoking, changes in dietary
habits, increased intake of calories, lacking of exercise, Type A personality (hostility
and anger), highest intake of alcohol and coffee and amended in sleeping
patterns (poor sleep quality and decreased in sleeping hours).
According to Lisa, Simon B,
Laura, Katherine and Richard (2013) mentioned that the falling in cortisol
functioning over the period and marginally increased the “burnout” by the
teachers who were too much stress. Another empirical research Munier and Farell
(2015) initiated that besides cardiovascular diseases affected the stressful
teacher, the founder stated that the vocal of teacher also been evaluated in
stress. The same empirical studied expressed that teaching lay a higher and
loud voice frequently for students clearly understands the teacher’s taught. Conversely,
not the teaching needed the loud voice but, the teachers also faced the voice
problem when the classroom were too much noise for a long period and teacher
sing and speaks more loudly at work rather than nurses.
Former expertise discussed that
the voice disorders piloted the retreating ability to teach and it does
mentioned “extensive periods of sick leave and vocal rehabilitee which
involves great financial loss” (Houtte E, Claeys S, Wuyts F and Lierde K,
2010). As consequently, the financial was a burden to the teachers,
professional and social life for the society (Munier et al, 2015). Another
studied mentioned, one of the most well-known physical symptoms among teachers
was vocal strained (Chen S et al, 2010) and had been reported by (Ohlsson et
al, 2012) that the teacher which had these vocal symptoms were gained a risk in
order to developing their career because it may disturbing their teaching while
in the class. The past researcher Yiu (2002), stated in Munier et al (2010)
stress causes by vocal disorders were impact on their quality of life, performance
in work and their economic was distracted because of the absenteeism from work
and change of profession.
Past guru’s Carlotto and Camara
(2015) founded that Common Mental Disorders (CMDs) among teachers was been
investigated their prevalence. Previous expertise Goldberg and Huxley (1992)
reviewed that CMDs was born from anxiety, depressive and unexplained somatic
symptoms (Carlotto, 2015). According to World Health Organization (2001), “one
in every four people develops one or more mental disorders at some stage in
life”. Based on past studied stated environmental factors was one of the
stressful in order to coped with urbanization and industrialization, unfair
entrée to health care, insufficient living conditions, revenue discrimination,
idleness, high violence and crime rates (Lopes et al, 2003). Furthermore, the
CMDs had been resulted in long-term for absenteeism in work (Stensfeld et al,
1995) and had an impact of socioeconomic because of lost workdays (Rai et al,
2010). In fact, according to the International Classification of Diseases
(ICD-10), CDMs was one of the lists in Mental and Behavioral Disorders in
Chapter V indicated that CDMs was the third cause for the compromise the
disability pensions due to inability to work. On the other hand, the situations
were being inclined to raise (Carlotto and Camara (2015).
Moving on to Kiecolt and Glaser
et al (2002) cited in Manjula (2007) disputed that stress was in line with
immune system that will addressed the reduction of the effectiveness in immune
system. Yet, the other prior scholar Friedman and Rosenman (2000) proposed in
Manjula (2007) were explored the linked between stress and coronary heart
diseases. Therefore, the result shows that the middle age men who give a lot of
findings in stress symptoms and narrowed to the depression. Meanwhile,
Frankenhauser’s (1991) argued in these study that there was two unsignificant
from the above studied whereby, the stress was not deal with the small illness
physically but it was causes by lack of control in work and had a higher level
of stress in high level of blood pressure (BP). Nevertheless, it was also
involved the stomach disorders and headaches within the higher rate because the
workers was monotonous and remain repeated the same works until they had diminutive
in controlled the work and faced the stress on their own.
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